EDUCATION IN CAMEROON: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CAMEROON EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

ABSTRACT

Cameroon educational system is a perfect display of colonial ramifications. A system that is strongly rooted to both the English and French educational systems but functioning simultaneously in the same country as a result of the country being colonized by Britain and France, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War[1]. A country with unique linguistic diversity, encompassing more than 250 languages, finds her educational system being held hostage by two foreign languages-English and French, as the statutory imposing communicative lingua franca. These variations could be seen in a more formal education setting in Cameroon, the scope which my research is based.

 With the spray of globalization affecting institutional building of organizations and in multiple sectors, countries are witnessing economic and social challenges, accentuated by the massive loss of essential cultural values. Globalization is affecting the nature of the debate in intercultural dialogues, resulting in structural and qualitative changes in education[2]. Thus, diversity within Cameroon educational structure makes it more complex which therefore necessitates the essence of a better development transmission, modes and structural mechanism to ensure consistency in the appropriate supply of education. In the face of these phenomena, it becomes relevant to provide a clear understanding spiced with solutions, which will go a long way to upgrade and make positive influence within Cameroon educational structure and the future of the society at large.

 In this paper, I tried to identify the key ideological phenomena influencing structural reforms in Cameroon educational system, from a historical perspective. Here, I argue that these ideological phenomena manifesting in historical time frame periods are strongly weakened in essence, due to differences in internal geo-political and demographic settings, and very strong external pressure emanating from the IMF and World Bank programs, like the structural adjustment program.

  Second, liking educational reforms to school enrolment and economic development, I argue that even though there is evidence of a positive nexus, this positivity is rather still shallow, indicating that educational structural reforms have not substantially play a leading role towards the achievement leading to economic development within historical time frame periods so far, in Cameroon.

INTRODUCTION

Christian Missionaries are the pivot behind early colonial education in Cameroon. The Baptist mission educational system during the colonial era in Cameroon for instance, could be situated in the then British Cameroon, extending between 1922-1945[3]. The Saker Baptist college in the Cameroon coastal town of Limbe is for instance the foot prints of missionary educational activities in Cameroon during the 18century. Education during colonialism in Cameroon was highly contextualized in the spirit of evangelism, affecting greatly the structural reforms, as schools were structured to serve with little or no interest of how the people feel what matters most to them and with little or no cultural values reflected in the educational system[4]. Thus, during the colonial era, education in Cameroon could be seen as the starting point for western cleansing as a justification for subduing an informal traditional setting in Cameroon educational system.

  Post colonial era marked a turning point and transformation period in the African educational structure. It came along with new African educated elites, spreading what became known as negritude, being champion by Senegalese born Leopold Senghor[5]. During the early and subsequent years of post colonial Africa, education was seen as the perfect way for promoting changes and accommodating political affluence. In line with this therefore, Tikly, in corroborating the hyper globalist approach takes side with other writers that global post modernity has greatly undermined the two central elements in the modernist goals; national education and the creation of a national culture[6].

  A historical perspective of Cameroon’s political transition can be adequately spread within the lanes of Missionary activities, Colonialism, One party system democracy and multiparty democracy. These historical political lanes, have greatly affected educational reforms in Cameroon. Thus, linking education and changes in social and demographic structures, health and agricultural development will go a long way to manifest the complexity and variety within structural reforms in the Cameroon educational system. Therefore, using historical chronology in tracing structural reforms in the Cameroon educational system will go a long way to clear some of these complexities and without actually sermonizing these ideological orthodoxies.

   The union between West and East Cameroon in a UN sponsored plebiscite of 11^th of February 1961 had a great impact on Cameroon educational system[7]. It meant not just the coming together of two brothers separated after the defeat of Germany in World War One, but also the coming together of two different educational systems[8]. This serves as a spring board for ideological phenomena to play a central role in structural reforms within the Cameroon educational system. This could be justified by the fact that bilingualism became a common parlance-debate, on the basis that it will serve as a sign of national unity and integration.  In September 1998 therefore, bilingualism was instituted in all levels of education in Cameroon, with the opening of government bilingual schools across Cameroon[9]. Special bilingual schools had been created after 1972 to preserve national unity. A good example is the creation of Lycee Molyko in Buea and Lycee Bilingue de Nkongsamba

The Cameroon educational lather starts from kindergarten, primary/elementary, secondary/middle school, high school and universities. At all levels, pupils must pass three different exams to move to the next class, structurized under first, second and third terms. Thus, we see that the strength of the Cameroon educational system lies at the lower levels moving up to the high school. University education still faces a lot of problems relating to consistency in structural reforms within higher education structures in Cameroon[10]. A country with six state universities, with five harborng and wrangling between a mixed educational system of English and French and just one Anglo-Saxon university. Thus, Victor T Le Vine holds the view that nation building involves the creation of an entity, using ideas, institutions and methods borrowed or adapted from the West, and with models which are implicitly western[11]. We see his postulation as a replica of the higher education sector in the Cameroon educational system.

A historical perspective of Cameroon Educational system can adequately be linked to social and technological transformation within the scope of historical -political development. In order to bring out a clear and precise situation, my work will mainly focused on administrative and pedagogical reforms within the Cameroon educational system, using different political settings in a more chronolized historical time frame.

   .From the following submissions therefore, I will try to address the following research questions:

1.      What are the ideological phenomena influencing structural reforms in Cameroon educational system?

2.      How structural reforms affect school enrolment in Cameroon?

3.      3. Does a continues increase in reform measures upgrades the standards of Cameroon educational system?

4.      Is there any direct links between upgraded educational-structural reforms and economic development in Cameroon?

Research Objective and Motivation

 Very few academic works has been written so far with key emphasis on the education system in Cameroon, from a historical perspective. It is therefore against this back drop that I was motivated to explore an academic paper on the education system of Cameroon, from a historical perspective and which will go a long way to foster future debates within this context, which will go a long way to brain storm on more recommendations and reforms in the Cameroon education system.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

           According to World fact book, Cameroon is an African country, located south of the Sahara, with a total land surface area of 475,440sq km.

Basically two official languages, English and French but over 250 local tribes and their local languages.

-Found in central/west Africa and boarded by Chad in the North, Central Africa Republic in east, Equatorial Guinea, Congo and Gabon in the south, and finally by Nigeria in the west.

-Rich in human and natural resources. Timber, petroleum, bauxite, iron, cocoa, coffee, cotton, tobacco, bananas, rubber and more, which nick-named the country “Africa in miniature”, since every thing African can be found in Cameroon.

-Political capital is Yaoundé while the economic capital is Douala. Has a population of about 18million spreading across 10regions.

-Literacy rate stands at 79percent of adult population, birth rate is 35per 100.

-Infant mortality rate is 66 per 1000 live birth, while life expectancy is 52.9 years.

-Labor stand force stands at 6.68; unemployment 30percent, currency is FCFA

-Industry and commerce 13 percent and others 17 percent while agriculture stands at 70percent

 According to 2006 estimates, its GDP/PPP stands at 42.2 billion USD, per capita income is 2,400USD, GDP Real Growth of 4.1percent with 48percent population bellow poverty line.

The Germans annexed Cameroon and called it ‘Kamerun’, but they lost the territory after being defeated in the World War One. Britain and France governed the territory under the supervision of the then League of Nations as Mandated territory. Later, it became a UN Trusteeship, with French Cameroon gaining independence in 1960 and British Cameroon in 1961 when she reunited with as a federated state. Finally, a referendum was conducted in 1972 leading to a unitary government under the United Republic of Cameroon, and by 1985 the wording ‘united’ was officially omitted to become the Republic of Cameroon.

 Cameroon is a country that has been described as Africa in miniature, as everything African can be found in Cameroon. A country with more than 250 tribal groups and cultural languages finds her self eco-political settings being contextualized in two official languages-English and French. Thus, these same languages constitute the official communicative instruments in schools, at all levels in Cameroon educational system. From this therefore, we see that changes in population and demographic settings entails rapid expansion of Cameroon’s educational system, habilitaling structural reforms to meet the demands of particular ideological phenomena during different political era within time frame histories.

CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW/ THEORETICAL BACK GROUND

1.1  Education and Economic Development

There has been much literature linking education to economic development. Education can be seen as a bread basket for development. According to Haci Bektas, a nation which fails to educate its women will not progress[12]. Thus, educating girls and women can be seen as the single most effective investment a developing country can make, as no country has achieved economic development without a considerable investment in human capital[13].

   In the earlier neo classical models, it is a truism that education was not considered as a major input with the capacity of enhancing production and was therefore not included in growth models[14]. According to Denison, there has been empirical evidence in the 1960s that education ignited the human investment revolution in economic thought[15]. Becker rather submits that there is a nexus between education on earnings or private rate of returns[16]. Meanwhile, in a survey of growth accounting studies carried out in 1984 covering 29 developing countries, Psacharopoulos found estimates of education’s contribution to economic growth, ranging from less than 1 percent in Mexico to high as 23 percent in Ghana[17]. In agriculture, evidence suggests positive effects of education on productivity among farmers using modern technologies[18].

    From the above contention we see that Cameroon can be adequately put on this assessment scale. Cameroon educational system has been carried out in a way that it will leads to economic development. Even though this can be debatable based on the result so far, the intention has been to develop and invest in the country’s human resource.

1.2: Cultural Colonialism

  This can be referred to as the extension of colonial power through cultural activities and institutions, particularly education and the media. Colonization is a process where by one nation or territory takes control of another nation or territory, either through the use of force or by acquisition[19]. According to Seidman, colonization stripped the colonized off their indigenous learning structures and knowledge constructs, while forcing them to use knowledge constructs and learning structures of the colonizer[20].

  Kelly and Altbach postulated that the idea of social progress has been used to justify the destruction of local training activities and communities[21]. Thus, assimilation forced those who were colonized through cultural domination to conform to the cultures and traditions of the colonizers. In this line of direction, Seidman colonialism was often the justified in the name of western humanism, placing Europe as pivot, with its duty to spread enlightenment and progress to the rest of humanity[22]. Levine holds the view that modern science was used as an instrument of colonialism to universalize western knowledge and turn marginalize local knowledge and frames and constructs that had existed for centuries[23]. Semali and Kincheloe argue that modern science was used to produce universal histories, define civilization and determine reality[24]. Finally, Shiva postulates that colonial western science promoted a hierarchical form of knowledge that dismissed other forms of knowledge while questioning concerning cultural assumptions in the use of knowledge as unnecessary[25].

 Contextualizing this within Cameroon, we see that early missionaries carried out their educational activities in Cameroon dismissing all local-traditional and cultural values. Education was structurized in the form of service and was therefore based on evangelism. During the colonial era we realized that western forms of education undermine Cameroon traditional forms of education as primitive and outdated. Thus, the colonialist believes western or cultural civilization was the best way to up grade and modernize the indigenes.

1.2  Structural Functionalism

 This theory holds the view that schooling is essential to society, so that it sorts and shifts above the average students from average and bellow average. Thus, it teaches the skills and norms of the society[26]. The theory believes that society must function together other wise it will fall apart. There is therefore the need for systems instilling the same belief and values in each member of the society[27].

     Hurn holds the view that, it is link to a society where ability and effort count for more than privilege and inherited status. This, he means a meritocratic society. He argues that the more we education, the less inequality[28]. Emile Durkheim rather argues the main function of a school is to teach morals to children[29]. Parsons also argues that the main function of schools is to socialize children using the idea of commitment[30].

   In Cameroon, it is very difficult to link education to meritocracy per se. This is because the principle of regional balance has politicalized the essence of the educational system. This can be justified by the fact that entrance exams to many public professional institutions in Cameroon is based on regional balance and not just merit per se. Thus, there is the tendency for candidates within same region to compete within themselves and not just competing with the entire candidates. This goes a long way to down great meritocracy as an epic- center role in structural functionalism. Second, the Cameroon educational system has been structurized in such a way that students and academic school curriculum places much emphasis on exams and certificates, rather than the skills acquired. This therefore affects the nature and quality of human resource personnel the educational system can produced.

Chapter Two: Historical Evolution of Cameroon Educational System.

-Pre-Colonial Era

     This period was dominated by European missionaries with the goal of spreading the word of God. Through evangelism therefore, early missionaries in Cameroon used education as the main instrument to evangelize. By 1884, the first primary school was opened in Bimbia, with most missionaries coming from Britain. Thus, by the time Germany annexed Cameroon in 1884, there were already about 15 primary schools with an enrolment of 368 pupils, run by London Baptist missionary society[31].

Colonial Era

  This period could be classified between 1884-1960. With three colonial masters, Cameroon’s educational system was greatly shaped by these colonial masters, I.e. Germany, Britain and France.

   When the Germans annexed Cameroon in 1884, they left education in the hands of missionaries. This was because the German administration was very unconcerned about the expansion of education in Cameroon. Later, the Germans opened many schools in Douala (1887, 1897), Garoua (1906) and Yaoundé (1900). Thus, the introduction of the education law of April 1910, made it clear that the Germans were willing to use education as a necessary tool to facilitate the spread of the German culture in Cameroon[32]. The Cameroonian born historian Julius Ngoh in analyzing this law, emphasized on the fundamental principle of the law, which instituted the use of German language as the only medium of instruction within schools, placing a five years duration period for primary school which was mandatory for all the pupils. It must be noted here that since many mission schools were operating even before Germany’s annexation of Cameroon, the German administration gave out subventions to mission schools[33]. These subventions were actually given with the condition that missionary schools expand the language and culture of the Germans. This is a clear manifestation of cultural colonialism. This idea was greatly used during the German colonial era in Cameroon to have total control of the institutions put in place. By the end of German rule in Cameroon, there were about 531 primary schools with an enrolment figure of about 34,117 pupils[34].

  French colonial rule in Cameroon could be seen between 1914-1960. The French colonial policy of assimilation was greatly utilized in her educational policy during the colonial period. The structure of such a system falls within a centralized administration which was directly controlled from France. By 1924, French language was imposed as the only language of instruction, even though education was still being managed by missionaries[35]. There were two types of curriculum introduced by the French administration, a metropolitan curriculum and a curriculum adapted to the Cameroon context. By 1945, the duration for primary education in French Cameroon was six years, with the creation of the Ministry of National Education in 1957 to improve the quality of education, registering about 15, and 1635 pupils in 977 public primary schools by 1960[36].

     The British rule in Cameroon was between 1916-1961, with the used of the indirect rule. Under the British rule, education was seen as a way of training temporary civil servants for colonial exploitation. British administration was decentralized and education was dictated by British policy in Nigeria[37]. Missionaries played a significant role in British educational policies, in British Cameroons. The educational curriculum was structured in a way that reflected the British educational system, as education was free at primary levels with the standard six certificates marking the end of primary education. The number of primary school enrolment by 1961 was 86,257 and a total number of schools 499. Until 1933, there was no secondary school in British Cameroon as student had to go to Nigeria to study[38].

Post Colonial Era

  Reforms took various forms for the development and progress of the national economy. The post colonial era could be seen between 1961 to 2010. The Federal law No 63/137 of June 1963 organizing secondary education in Cameroon stipulated that, the first three years were meant for general education and the last two for academic specification. This law did not apply to Francophone schools. Also, decree No 62-DF-289 of the 26^th of July 1962 created the federal university of Cameroon. The federal era witnessed two different sets of structures, program and exams settings. Under the United republic of Cameroon era, university education was free while the available evaluation systems and certification procedures was a called for concerned. Under the Republic of Cameroon era, secondary level failure rate in examination was estimated at 70percent, 68percent for general education and 30 and 32 percentages for technical and vocational education pass rates in school systems[39].

   The Anglophone system was based on a 7-5-2(seven years of primary school, five years of first cycle secondary and three years of second cycle secondary education). The francophone system was in the form of 6-4-3(six years of primary school, four years of first cycle secondary and three years of second cycle secondary education)[40]. The 1993 set out reforms in the university education of Cameroon, addressing both internal and external efficiency, while also instituting a tuition fee of 50,000FCFA (100USD)[41].This sparked a bloody protest by university students. Also, the 1998 law which lay down guide lines for Cameroon education provides in sections 22(1) that school year shall comprise at least 36weeks of effective classes and holiday periods[42]. Main while, the 1989 economic crisis in Cameroon greatly affected the educational sector, with a dropped in enrolment by 2.3 percent, between 1990-1994[43].

Today, the general certificate examination board coordinates GCE O/A Levels in the Anglophone educational system while the BAC board does same for the Francophone educational system in Cameroon. Also, the education ministry has been divided into the ministry of basic and secondary school education and the ministry of higher education[44]. Today, Cameroon can boast of six state universities[45].

Chapter Three: A Historical Perspective of Reforms in Cameroon Educational Structure/System

3.1 Ideological Phenomena Influencing Structural Reforms in Cameroon Educational System.

   The educational system in Cameroon has greatly been influenced by a good number of ideological phenomena. From all indications, it seems as if that, as time passes, the educational system in Cameroon will continue to under go significant transformation, as we expect to see different ideological phenomena reflecting changing times.

 -Ruralization:

    Between 1960-1972, Cameroon educational system under went vital transformations to meet up with the rapidly changing world, at a time when the country was still feeling the breeze of colonial release. Educational reforms focused on the concerned social development. In order to achieve this, ruralizing education therefore became an imperative necessity. This could be justified by the fact in 1967, a rurally oriented primary teacher training institute, abbreviated in French as “ENIR” was created. This was later referred to as rurally oriented applied education on curriculum development center; opened in Yaoundé and Buea in 1969 and 1974 respectively. Thus, as an ideology, integrated and participatory approaches were adopted in school curriculum as teaching methods using agricultural activities[46].

-Harmonization:

  This is a strategy with a key purpose of blending the educational practices of Francophone and Anglophone, without actually creating a monolithic system[47]. As manifestations of this strategy, we notice that aspects of primary and secondary school curriculum were to have the same content but rather taught in conformity in the method and procedures that define each of these systems[48]. The fundamental paradox here is reflected in the controversy that the two educational systems have different examinations and certificates’ systems. At the university level, harmonization has never been a critical issue as each university is modeled on specific system.

   Not with standing the above, the 1995 Education Forum and the 1998 law, were used with the intention to ensure a relevant meaningful co-existence (harmonization). In this regard, harmonization was limited to structural aspects relating to the duration of the courses.

-Bilingualism:

  This was used as a spring board to serve national unity and intergration.French language was instituted in Anglophone educational curriculum at all level as an opportunity for Anglophones to learn French and integrate themselves fully with the Francophone. This was also same for Francophones. Also, the government decided to create a good number of bilingual schools across the country and today, almost all public secondary and high schools across Cameroon, are bilingual institutions.

   Despite the above view, we see that while learning of English was seen unnecessary to many Francophones in Cameroon, to Anglophones , learning French was seen as a way of survival, in a country where Francophones constituting more that 70percent of the population, occupying eight out of the ten regions in Cameroon. How ever with the flow of globalization, Francophone Cameroonians have seen the importance of learning English language and continue to invade English colleges recently.

-Information Technology:

   This is a form of modernizing Cameroon educational system through the information and communication technology (ICT), as a response to globalization. Cameroon is among the sub Saharan African countries that are making significant progress in the use of ICT into school curriculums. ICT was officially instituted into Cameroon education system in 2001 by the president of the Republic, under the “Cyber Education Project”[49]. The Cameroon government targeted secondary and tertiary education. Primary schools are not yet into the project. The establishment of multi media resources in all state universities, professional and technological institutions and also secondary schools was a strong indication portraying the efforts of the Cameroon government to draw her youths closer to the rest of the world. Private schools have not been involved in the program thus we see a gap between the two educational systems. How ever, it is frustrating that most of the on line learning resources accessible through the government secondary plat form CAM-EDUC, are in French, handicapping the English speaking students.

3.2: Linking Educational Reforms to School Enrolment and Economic Development

 From independence, it has been the goal of the Cameroon government to carry out structural educational reforms that will positively affects the level of school enrolment and also achieved economic development in the long run. While Cameroon educational system witnessed a drop in school enrolment between 1990-1995 due to the effects of the 1989 economic crisis, we noticed that between 2002-2005 there was a significant increased in school enrolment in Cameroon. This could be seen in the table bellow:

General Data on Education:

INDICATORS

Combined primary, secondary and tertiary enrolment ratio (% gross)*	62.3
Literacy rate	65%2
Adult literacy rate (ages 15 and older) (2000-2004)	68%
Male adult literacy rate (2000-2004)	77%
Female adult literacy rate (2000-2004)	60%
Youth literacy rate (2000)3	94.0
Net primary school enrolment/attendance       (2000-2005)	79%
Male enrolment ratio, secondary school (% gross) (2000-2005)	51
Female school enrolment ratio, secondary school (% gross) (2000-2005)	36
Enrolment ratios: females as a percent of males, secondary school (% gross) (2000-2005)	71%
Central government expenditure allocated to education (1994-2004)	12%
Enrolment ratios: females as a percent of males, secondary school (% gross) (2000-2005)	85%

Sources: UNDP, Human Development Report 2206, Cameroon Fact Sheet; First draft Cameroon NICI policy

Plan, 2001; UNICEF-at a glance-Cameroon Statistics, 2006,

www.unicef.org/infobycountry/cameroon_statistics.html

ICT

              From the table above, we noticed that despite the economic difficulties faced by many Cameroonians, people are rather becoming more aware of the importance of education in Cameroon. With the Cameroon government carrying out continues significant reforms in the educational system; opportunities become numerous for those who want to study. Despite this, it is a truism that the number of graduates without job in Cameroon continues to increase at an alarming rate. Much of this has been linked to the Cameroon educational system which is more general and les professional, wherein students study to pass exams, move ahead without or limited professional skills acquired. Thus, the feelings across Cameroon presently is that one has to further his or her studies, leave the country to do something more professional if one has to survive in Cameroon and today’s globalized job market. In this line of reasoning , we noticed that the number of Cameroonian youth leaving the country for further studies has be come a major issue within the political economy debate in the country.

   From the above submissions, we see that even though reforms in Cameroon education system has significant impact on school enrolment , this has not been so positive on the economic development of the country, as only 20 percent of more than 6,000 yearly university graduates may successfully pick a job after graduating in Cameroonian state universities. We therefore find it difficult to see a strong positive nexus between education and economic development in Cameroon. As a way of responding to this educational weakness in terms of structure, the Cameroon government is working hard to professionalize Cameroon higher education. This was promulgated by the Cameroon head of state, President Paul Biya during his youth day message on February 11, 2007 and characterized by increased professionalism, stressing on vocational training, decentralization of university management with emphasis on quality assurance through the new LMD system as known in French and BMP (BACHELOR, MASTER, and PHD) as in English. This system was practiced only by the University of Buea, which is the only Anglo-Saxon university in Cameroon[50].

Chapter Four: Recommendations and Conclusion

  Recommendations

  -First, there is ample need for the government to also carry out reforms within the private educational sector. This sector of education continues to grow but rather produces very low qualitative results, especially in lay private institutions in Cameroon, where school curriculum focuses more on preparing the students for examinations rather than developing the skills necessary to make a child adapt very easily to the changing world.

- Second, education policies in Cameroon should reflect national contextualization. This has not been adequately achieved in the past because the so called experts invited to develop and proposed structural reforms within the Cameroon education system come all the way from the West with limited knowledge of what the Cameroon education system really needs.

Third, the Cameroon government should try to develop the private sector which will go a long way to make use of the university graduates. Cameroon has a very weak private sector due to its bad tax policies which is also a hindering many foreign investors to come and invest in the Country. If this can be done, students will have opportunities to do internships in multiple organizations.

  Finally, the Cameroon government should invest on the Cameroonian intellectual communities in the Diaspora, who if encouraged by the government can come back home with the quality education and experiences acquired in the diasporas to turn things round in the country.

       

Conclusion

From the above submission, it becomes clear that the education system of Cameroon is very unique in Africa. A historical evolution of the country’s educational system exposes the influence of cultural colonialism in the Cameroon education system, bringing out ideological phenomena that have either directly or indirectly affected structural reforms in the Cameroon education system. Even though school enrolment continues to increase despite the economic hardship, the country is still far from enjoying a strong positive nexus Vis a Vis education and economic development. As the government tries to carry out educational reforms that will uplift the country from this doldrums of mediocrity, she must also try to improve the private sector which will play a vital part in linking education and economic development.

Edwin Ngome

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[1] Ngoh, V. J. (1996) History of Cameroon Since 1880, Press book Limbe

[2] www.uws.edu.au(2010) Living Together: Globalization, Education and Intercultural Dialogue, by Joseph Zajda. Accessed date: June 10, 2010

[3] Weber, W (1993) International Influences and Baptist Mission in West Cameroon: German-American Missionary Endeavor under International Mandate and British Colonialism. EJ Brill

[4] Ibid

[5] Ba, Sylvia, Washington (1973). The Concept of Negritude in the Poetry of Leopold Sedar Senghor. Princeton, NY : Princeton University Press,

[6] Tikly, Leon (2001). Globalization and Education in the Post Colonial World: towards a conceptual frame work. Comparative Education Vol. 37, No.2 2001, PP.151-171

[7] Monono, E, Churchill (2009): Youth and Nation Building in Cameroon: A study of national youth day messages and leadership discourse 1949-2009. Langaa RPCIG

[8] Ngoh, V, J (1996) History of Cameroon since 1880. Limbe Press book

[9] Law No 98/004 of 14^th April, 1998, laying down guide lines for education in Cameroon

[10] La Reforme Universitaire au Cameroun, 1993

[11] Vine, Le T. Victor (1971) The Cameroon Federal Republic. Cornell University Press.

[12] Ilhan Ozturk, (winter 2001) The Role of Education in Economic Development: A Theoretical perspective. Journal Rural Development  and Administration, Vol.xxxiii, No.1, PP39-47

[13] Ibid

[14] Denison, E.F. (1962), Sources of Economic Growth in the United State and alternative before us, NY, Committee for Economic Development.

[15] Ibid

[16] Becker, Grays (1964) Human Capital, NY, Colombia University Press.

[17] Psacharopoulos, G (1984) The Contribution of Education to Economic Growth: International Comparisons, Cambridge, Ballinger Publishing Co.

[18] Ibid

[19] www.blackwellreference.com (2001) Cultural Colonialism: Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Accessed date: June 12, 2010

[20] Seidman, S. (1994) (Ed) The Post Modern Turn: New perspectives on social theory. NY: Cambridge University Press.

[21] Kelly, G.P. and Altbach, P.G (1984) Introduction: The face of Colonialism. In: GP

[22] Seidman, S. (1998) Contested Knowledge: Social theory in the post modern era. Massachusetts. Blackwell Publisher.

[23] Levine, G. (1996) What is science studies for and cares? In A Ross (Ed), Science wars. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

[24] Samali, L.M and J.L (1999) What is indigenous knowledge and why should we study it? NY: The Falmer P

[25] Shiva, V. (1997) Western Science and its destruction of local knowledge. London. Zed Books

[26] www.grinnell.edu(2/24/2000) Functionalism. Access date: June 12, 2010

[27] Ibid

[28] Ibid

[29] Ibid

[30] Deacon, Desly (1999) Parsons. Elisie Clews Parsons: Inventing Modern Life. University of Chicago Press.

[31] Weber, W. (1993) International Influences and Baptist Mission in West Cameroon: German-American Missionary Endeavor Under International Mandate and British Colonialism. EJ Brill

[32] Ngoh, V. J. (1987) Cameroon 1884-1985: A hundred years of history.Navi-Group Publications.

[33] Ibid

[34] Ibid

[35] Ngoh, V, J (1996) History of Cameroon since 1880. Limbe Press book

[36] Ibid

[37] Ibid

[38] Ibid

[39] MINEDUC (1989), MINEDUC Reports.

[40] Ibid

[41] Decree  No 93/026 of the 19^th of January, 1993

[42] Law No 98/004 of 14^th April 1998, Lay down guide lines for Education in Cameroon

[43] UNESCO (1995) Reports on the State of Education in Africa Education Strategies for 1990s: Orientation and Achievements,(UNESCO)

[44] www.minsup.gov.cm Accessed date: June 13, 2010

[45] www.minsup.gov.cm Accessed date: June 13, 2010

[46] Tchombe, M, Therese (1998) Structural Reforms in Education in Cameroon. School of Education, Yaoundé University.

[47] Ibid

[48] Ibid

[49] www.infodev.org(2007)ICT in Education in Cameroon. Accessed date:  June 18, 2010

[50] www.viocesofafrica.africanews.com (October, 17th, 2007) Cameroon: Emphasis on Professionalism. Accessed date: 18^th, June 18, 2010